(This paper presented at INDUSTRIAL ENERGETIC 2004 in Donji Milanovac,
organized by Society of thermal engineers of Serbia and Montenegro, September 2004.)
e-mail: nesoni2@open.telekom.rs
Belgrade, Serbia
THERMOTECHNIC - ENERGY SAVING - BUILDING STOCK - BIOCLIMATIC ARCHITECTURE - PASSIVE SOLAR ARCHITECTURE - NEOLITHIC - LEPENSKI VIR
STATEMENT BY DRAGOSLAV SREJOVIC, ARCHEOLOGIST
NEW:
NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF VINCA - THERMAL ASPECTS
(with Nenad Tasic, archeologist)
NEW BOOK ON SERBIAN:
NENAD MILORADOVIC
THERMAL ASPECTS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION - BACKGROUND AND PERSPECTIVES
(SUPPLEMENT TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT)
GRADJEVINSKA KNJIGA
BEOGRAD, 2009
ARCHITECTURE OF LEPENSKI VIR AS A SIGNPOST FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDING STOCK
SUMMARY
Buildings are the greatest consumers
energy for heating and cooling; therefore, our energy is highly susceptible to
changes in outdoor temperature. Measures which contribute to energy efficiency
in this area are thus of great importance.
Some of the measures which are
still taken as guidelines for energy efficiency in building stock were already
applied as early as in the Neolithic, in the architecture of Lepenski Vir. This
relates to the selection of the site, the shape of the building envelop and its
compactness, filling in earth and and imbeding the walls which are in the shade,
etc. The energy of the period relied only upon fire made by burning wood and the
heat from solar radiation. Passive techniques, now long forgotten,may
serve as an example and inspiration for modern solutions based on new
technologies. The issue of adapting to the climatic environment is
still current, as it was long ago.
The book by Dragoslav Srejovic,
archeologist, entitled ”Lepenski Vir, a new prehistoric culture in the Danube
region”, published by Srpska knjizevna zadruga in 1969, is the
major source of information on this pearl of the world
architecture.
The energy crisis in 1970s caused an increased interest in
solar and bioclimatic architecture. Excavations and research in Lepenski Vir was
performed before this crisis. The ”time gap” was the reason why the thermal
aspect of the architecture of this important Neolithic field was not paid
sufficient attention in archeological research of Lepenski Vir.
The
aim of this paper is to present the architecture of Lepenski Vir, which dates
back from the Neolithic, in view of the highly organised skills with emphasized
bioclimatic aspects. It could also be concluded that the constructors
of Lepenski Vir were aware of the construction principles which ideally fit into
the surrounding natural and climatic features, so the architecture of Lepenski
Vir is an exceptional example for modern architects who wish to construct
low-energy buildings (certainly, with some improvements of the long-forgotten
skills). Energy may be saved by applying simple techniques and interventions, in
case the natural environment is taken into consideration.
The paper consists
of the following chapters: the introduction, the location and its natural
environment, the description of Lepenski Vir architecture, elements of passive
solar architecture and bioclimatic aspects of Lepenski Vir and the
conclusion.
INTRODUCTION
Utilization of solar energy
is one of the oldest man’s skills. In the past, the man has always
fulfilled his needs for energy with fire and resourceful use of solar radiation.
The skills thus obtained significantly influenced development and advancement of
mankind.
Nowadays, we are returning to solar energy utilization. In almost
all countries, energy development plans include the following two items:
1.
Development of renewable energy sources (solar energy, wind
energy, geothermal energy, using waves, high tide and low tide and waterfall
energy, biomass energy).
2. Rationalization of energy consumption
(includes deliberation of energy efficiency both in the sense of the
whole energy chain and its parts. Particular attention is paid to measures
intended for improving energy efficiency).
Buildings, which are the greatest
consumers of energy for heating in winter and cooling in summer, have
significant impact on energy efficiency of the whole energy chain. Measures
contributing to saving energy in this area have important influence on the
stability of the energy system.
The objective of this paper is to present the
architecture of Lepenski Vir, which originates from the Neolithic, as a highly
organised skill featuring emphasized bioclimatic aspects. Passive
construction techniques, which may be observed in the
architecture of Lepenski Vir, may contribute to saving energy
in future, in case they are applied within new, modern solutions which are based
on new technologies.
THE LOCATION AND ITS
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Lepenski Vir is an excavation field
located on the right bank of the Danube in the Djerdap Gorge. It is well known
for its art sculptures, remains of urbanized houses, graves, general purpose
objects and unusual ornaments. This abandoned settlement is estimated to be
about 7,000 years old. Professor Dragoslav Srejovic, PhD was in
charge of archeological research in the period between 1965 and 1968, performed
in order to protect archeological sites, which was necessary due to the fact
that the ground was to be sunk for the purpose of setting in operation the hydro
power plant Djerdap 1. The findings were excavated and relocated to another site
situated just above the original one. The big artificial lake, constructed in
1970, rasied the level of the Danube by 12 meters on the average. Thus, evidence
on life of people form the Neolithic was preserved.
The Djerdap
Gorge is a natural area unique in Europe. As the Djerdap Gorge
stretches in the direction west-east and due to its specific position, shape and
relief conditions, it is a habitat of some rare plant species and a rich mixed
community. The quick changes of the relief, climate, plant and animal species
take place in close areas, both horizontally and vertically. Taking this into
consideration, the Djerdap Gorge consists of numerous and various
micro-habitats.
Running deep into the Carpathian mountains, the Djerdap
Gorge is sheltered from sharp climatic influences from the North and excessive
heat from the South. Due to a sharp turn southwards, air currents in the
territory of Lepenski Vir are disrupted, so that the area has specific
microclimate. This specific ”Djerdap climate” is featured by somewhat milder
winters and moderately hot summers, with a later tempereture maximum (see:
literature, Misic B., Colic D. and Dinic A (5), discussing meteorological
parametres at the site before constructing the accumulation lake). Climatic
conditions at the site are more favourable than those in areas out of
Djerdap.
The vicinity of the river causes frequent precipitation and high
relative humidity of the air; this results in frequent occurence of dew, fog and
rainbow.
Due to the terrain configuration, Lepenski Vir is situated on the
lee-side, surrounded by a dense forest and high sheer cliffs, and the horse
shoe-shaped plateau on which the settelement was constructed is very insolated
in the morning. The configuration of the terrain was also the reson for the
settlement to be turned towards the river, so that the whole settlement was in
the shade in the afternoon, which was pleasant for the summers.
ARCHITECTURE OF LEPENSKI VIR -
DESCRIPTION
The book “Lepenski Vir, nova
praistorijska kultura u Podunavlju” (Lepenski Vir, a new prehistoric culture in
the Danube region), published by Srpska knjizevna zadruga in 1969, is
the main source of information on this pearl of the world architecture.
The
architecture of Lepenski Vir is the first meaningful architecture, based on a
rational approach. It may be classified as original, because it was conceived by
the generations which were becoming adapted to living in open spaces having left
the caves. This is not about some individual or isolated facility, but a whole
urban settlement located at the bank of the Danube.
The architecture
of Lepenski Vir was clearly defined during the first phase of
construction (Ia). It is this phase in which the manner of construction, the
shape and arrangement of the houses, the main communications and the use of
construction materials were conceived. Lepenski Vir Ia is the work of an
exceptionally talented generation. Almost all the building structures are facing
the river Danube and they have almost the East orientation. They follow the
shape of the ground, and perfectly fit into the surrounding natural setting and
environment. This also relates to the thermodynamical aspect, as the facilities
are ”tucked” into the calcarenite base which has considerable thermoaccumulative
characteristics. The vicinity of the Danube and the great mass of the river also
contribute to the comfortable conditions at the site and damping temperature
amplitudes.
All the houses have a trapezoid shape, with the
longer base line contorted into an arch. It was established that 22 out of the
85 houses of theis shape were constructed in the first phase. All the houses in
Lepenski Vir Ia were constructed in the same manner and using the same
materials. Their shape is identical, as well as the arrangement of internal
constructions and the proportions; the houses only differ in size. Materials
used are wood and some types of coloured sandstone and limestone. The shape of
the houses, as well as the manner in which they are connected and their position
on the site are a result of elaborated and organised work. 
Picture 1 – Photo of bases of houses
in Lepenski Vir, taken from on-line literature (8).
The floors
of the houses in Lepenski Vir settlement are of extraordinary
construction. They are mainly made of arenaceous and marly red limestone, which
was extracted above Lepenski Vir, from the slopes of Koršo mountain. The local
red limestone was first kilned, and then added water, sand and fine pebbles to
obtain a slush mass with properties of lime mortar. Before final thickening,
this mass was polished or applied later as coating. Only after a while, after
the water had been released, the floor would acquire certain strength. Today it
appears petrified. The floor is 1-2 cm thick at the edges, and up to 25 cm thick
by the hearth. The hearths were made from heavy stone blocks,
100x50x40 or 60x40x35 cm in dimensions, while the stone thresholds connect the
hearths to the front. In literature (1), Ljubinka Babovic, art historian and an
active participant in excavation and conservation, claims: “The floor is made
from purple-red stone, and its base has a form of a shrine; the hearths are made
of gray stone prisms, gray stone slates make the ashery, stone tables,
triangular or arrow-shaped symbols around the hearth. Supports – the base and
the stone ring encircling the floor of the shrine – marks of the upper
construction, are constructed of the same material”. The base gets its final
appearance only after the stone constructions are sunk into the ruddy floor
mass.
As for the upper construction, only the traces of charred beams could
be found on the floors of the houses. Due to the incline, it is certain that the
houses had slanting walls, while the roof began form the ground level. As only
the bases of the houses remained, the third dimension is
unknown. It may be assumed that the roof construction was firm due to
the wood beams which were covered in thatch (according to Srejovic) or leather
and fur (as the remains of game found in the houses suggested that animals most
frequently trapped were martens, badgers and beavers, as well as deer). As the
third dimension has not been defined, we know nothing of the manner in which the
inhabitants of Lepenski Vir dealt with smoke gasses from their massive hearths.
The hearth, which is located at the very entrance of the house, could be
directly connected to the atmosphere without a chimney.
As the terrain is
sloped, the majority of houses were partly dug in. In the
western part of the settlement they were dug in as deeply as one meter, while
this feature is almost non-existent by the bank of the Danube. All this relates
to phase Ia. The later settlements, constructed upon the rubbles of the old one,
were located at somewhat higher grounds and could not be dug in, but had arched
support walls up to one meter high. The forms of the bases were not as precise
as they were before, and in phase II floors were never covered with lime mortar.
This is why they were poorly fixed.
The architecture which appeared as the
first comprehensive symbol remained so till the end of the Lepenski Vir culture.
The shape created at the beginning of phase Ia became a pattern to be
permanently observed. The standard and tradition were conceived, and the later
changes did not considerably modify the structure of the settlement. The details
which were subject to changes did not threaten the traditional
pattern.
ELEMENTS OF PASSIVE SOLAR
ARCHITECTURE AND BIOCLIMATIC ASPECTS IN LEPENSKI VIR
Some
general rules must be taken into consideration when constructing low-energy
buildings. One of the basic rules relates to the choice of site
in which the house is to be constructed. In this sense, the architecture of
Lepenski Vir fits perfectly into the natural environment. This relates bot to
individual houses and the settlement as a whole. The position and the location
of the settlement were carefully selected as a result of experience and rational
approach, while the site by itself is exceptionally favourable. The vicinity of
the river, rich in fish, enabled quick provision of food, and the steep cliffs
prevented enemies and wild animals from getting in. Microclimatic
characteristics and favourable characteristics of the site could be observed
primarily based on the experience and long-term monitoring over natural
phenomena, such as draining puddles and melting of snow (primarily under sun
radiation).
The shape of the bases of the houses is
exceptionally beneficial energy-wise. This primarily relates to the compactness
of the form, as comfortable conditions in a facility and energy behaviour of a
building depend on the ratio of the surface of the outer walls against the
volume. The inside of the house performs heat exchange with the environment
through its building envelop which has certain thermoinsulating features. If the
surface through which energy transfer is performed is smaller, it is possible to
achieve comfortable conditions in the building in the facility, or – as it is
more current nowadays – to save energy for heating. The sphere is the most
compact geometrical shape, while the cyllinder is the most compact cyllindrical
body. Cyllindrical form of a convex trapeze has by 6% smaller ratio of the
surface against the volume compared to the cube, and it is even somewhat better
than the half-sphere. This is the scope to which energy may be saved, as
architecture nowadays is mainly ortogonal (walls are placed at right angles).
Comparing certain modern forms which have uinfavourable proportions with the
shape of a convex trapeze, energy consumption in them is even greater. Even in
modern facilities which have quality thermoinsulating materials it is possible
to reduce consumption of energy if the compactness of the shape is taken into
consideration. I would like to emphasize that the shape of the bases of houses
in Lepenski Vir is a new, yet an old solution which contributes to saving
energy. We may only make assumptions on the mathematical skills of the
inhabitants of Lepenski Vir, as there are no written traces left. Much of their
knowledge was lost in the vortex of time. 
Picture 2 – Geometry of the bases of
houses in Lepenski Vir according to Srejovic, downloaded from on-line literature
(8).
We have already mentioned that the third dimension of the houses
remained unknown. However, it is certain that walls were made of materials which
may be destroyed by damp. The walls were placed at an angle,
and the roof started from the ground level. This enabled fast drying of the
materials under the influence of the sun, as slanting surfaces may receive more
solar energy than vertical walls. The slope reduced compactness of the shape,
but helped preserve the construction materials (possibly leather, furs or
brushwood – materials succeptible to
decomposition).
Orientation of the houses is also
interesting. All the houses were facing the Danube, which was vitally connected
to the settlement. All of them, except a few, are orientated towards the east.
Bioclimatic architecture, a branch of architecture which takes meteorological
conditions – primarily excposure to the sun - into consideration, claims that an
ideal orientation towards the south is turned 12 degrees eastwards. (see:
literature, (6), Pucar M, Pajevic M i Jovanovic-Popovic M). This relates to the
flat terrain, and areas which are not exposed to excessive east wind influence.
However, the terrain in which Lepenski Vir is situated is bordering a steep hill
on the west, so that the whole site is in shade after 3 p.m. This is why its
east orientation is favourable, as the houses are turned in such a way as to
gain solar energy as much as possible. This is especially favourable in winters,
when solar energy is needed for heating. The energy for heating was most needed
in the mornings, when the outside temperatures are lower than maximum day
temperatures and when the facility needs to be heated after a cold night.
Therefore, in this site, firstly thanks to the configuration of the terrain, the
orientation eastwards is more favourable than the theoretically better
orientation southwards. This demonstrates well-harmonised relations between the
need for energy and the power of solar radiation. Humid climate, where water
frequently condensates in the form of dew, especially before the dawn after a
cold night, as well as frequent precipitation and high relative humidity of the
air result in the need for drying in the morning. Eastward orientation also
provides the best comfort in summers, when outside temperatures are high, as the
outside temperatures and gains from solar radiation act jointly in the
afternoons, when the whole site is in the shade. All these elements have
favourable impact on the comfort in the houses throught the year. 
Picture 3 – Orientation of the
settlement, taken from the literature (1).
The floor is made from lime
mortar, which has similar thermal characteristics to those of bricks. Due to
light weight of the upper construction, almost the whole mass of the facility is
in the floor.
Thermoaccumulative characteristics of the
materials used for the base make the floor act as a heat accumulator. I
would like to point out that surfaces exposed to solar radiation are important
in application in modern solar houses.
Good accumulative features of the
floor area provide not only for acceptance of heat from solar radiation, but
also enable keeping heat from the fireplace after the fire has
been extinguished. As well as in case of all passive heating systems,
comfortable conditions are provided using an active heating system. Additional
heating in this case is obtained through a fireplace fitted in the floor, as a
form of floor heating. The thickest layers of mortar are located around the
fireplace. Modern tile stoves and electric thermoaccumulative heaters operate on
the same principle.
The ability to absorb heat depends on
the colour and roughness of the material. Dark colours absorb, while light
colours reflect sun rays. Absorption-wise, the ruddy colour of the floor
presents an acceptable solution. Apart from this, it is possible that the
original colour faded due to tehrmophysical processes and contacts with air. The
literature (1), however, states that the original colour was purple-red.
Vertical assymetry of the houses, as assumed by Srejovic,
may also contribute to saving the energy for heating. The walls oriented toward
the sun radiation gain are larger in space than the ones in the shade. For the
inhabitants of Lepenski Vir, this meant faster drying of the roofs and the walls
of the houses. 
Picture
4 – The assumed appearance of houses in Lepenski Vir according to
Srejovic, taken from literature (7).
Apart from the aforementioned, there is
yet another principle of bioclimatic architecture which may be observed at the
remains of the settlement. This is digging in or filling in walls with
earth. The walls which were turned westwards were up to one meter dug
into the ground; the ones close to the bank of the Danube were hardly dug in at
all. As it is known that earth is excellent insulating material, this was
applied to make use of the favourable thermal accumulation of the ground and
reduce heat losses caused by outside air. This reduces the areas exposed to
outside air, but to cold winds as well. There are even assumptions that in the
future underground construction will be applied increasingly (see: literature,
Lukic M (3)).
Picture 5
– Digging in and sloped thatch walls, according to Srejovic, taken from
literature (7).
The shrines, which appeared only after the
Lepenski Vir architecture was precisely adopted, were exposed to sun rays early
in the morning. They first occurred in the phase 1b. It may be concluded that
the inhabitants of Lepenski Vir were aware of the imporatnt role the Sun and
solar radiation in their lives. Here I shall once again quote Ljubinka Babovic:
”It is certain, however, that one celestial body, the Sun, was the pillar of the
culture of Lepenski Vir, and that this culture knew, measured and monitored the
movement of the Sun. At symbolic level, it may be concluded that an image of the
Universe ruled by the Sun as the supreme Uranic being was in Lepenski Vir
expressed through architecture, sculpture, customs and rites. Therefore,
Lepenski Vir is Hieropolis, or, more to the point, Heliopolis, thus a town of
priests in which the sacred excludes the profane.” It is my opinion that the
explicit bioclimatic conditions of the Lepenski Vir architecture in no way
contradict the later religious character of the settlement.
CONCLUSION
The stated principles of
passive solar and bioclimatic architecture, a dozen of them, point to the
assumption that the architecture of Lepenski Vir could not have possibly
occurred by chance, and that its occurrence may be explained through
the influence of the Sun and solar radiation. Some of these principles are basic
and may be perceived at once, while some of them call for further analysis. Not
casting away caution and scientific skepticism, I would like to express my
belief that inhabitants of Lepenski Vir had exceptionally comfortable
homes for that period. This is corroborated by the already established
fact (see: literature (7)) that skeletons of Lepenski Vir inhabitants
did not show any other diseases except for spondilose; some of them
died in very old age. Therefore, there were no traces of rheumatic
processes which occur due to humidity or cold, which could be expected
having in mind the humid climate at the site. It could also be concluded
that the constructors of Lepenski Vir were aware of the principle of
construction of houses which ideally fit into the surrounding natural and
climatic setting which makes the architecture of Lepenski Vir and
excellent example, even for modern architects who tend towards constructing
low-energy buildings (certainly, the long-forgotten skills are
to be improved). Simple techniques and decisions may help save energy, in case
the natural environment is taken into consideration.
We may ask how useful
taking interest in this unusual and mysterious architecture may be. The answer
is simple: the energy chain issues are current in ever country and always.
Coming up against the meteorological conditions is an ancient problem, and the
local energy is quite susceptible to changes in temperature. Needs for heating
and cooling largely dictate consumption of fuels. This is why saving and
rationalization in this domain may have considerable impact on the quality of
life. Long forgotten experiences may also contribute to new ideas in
architecture and energetic, with introduction of new technologies, equipment and
materials. The architecture of Lepenski Vir may serve as an inspiration for
designing new facilities which would consume less energy. I would like to repeat
that the eccentric base of the Lepenski Vir dwellings is exceptionally
attractive in the energy sense. The time will come when houses will be
increasingly perceived as thermodynamic, not only construction facilities.
Picture 6
– Communications in the settlement, taken from literature (7).
The
energy crisis of 1970s resulted in increased interest in solar and bioclimatic
architecture. Excavations and research in Lepenski Vir were performed before
this crisis. This time gap was the reason why the thermal aspect of the
architecture of this significant Neolithic site was not taken into consideration
in archeological research of Lepenski Vir.
The stated bioclimatic
aspects of the Lepenski Vir architecture contribute not only to better
understanding of the history of architecture and energetic, but may also
serve as a signpost for energy saving in building stock. We
should not linger on whether the hunters and fishermen of the Neolithic were
able to conceive such an approach to architecture. The explanation, apart from
the very architecture, is unlikely to be found. However, their achievements need
only to be improved and applied in current conditions.
LITERATURE:
(1) Babovic Lj, 1997,
Položaj i funkcija svetilišta na Lepenskom Viru, Uzdarje Dragoslavu Srejovicu,
Faculty of Philosophy, Belgrade, 97-108.
(2) Hawkes J, 1963, Prehistory,
Georg Allen and Unwin Ltd. London, 146.
(3) Lukic M, 1994, Solarna
arhitektura, Naucna knjiga, Belgrade, 42-49.
(4) Miloradovic N, 1997,
Optimalni oblik zgrada u energetskom smislu, Proceedings of the 28 Congress on
KGH, SMEITS, Belgrade, 128-140.
(5) Mišic B, Colic D i Dinic A, 1969,
Ekološko-fitocenološka istraživanja in: D. Srejovic, Lepenski Vir, SKZ,
Belgrade, 207-223.
(6) Pucar M, Pajevic M i Jovanovic-Popovic M, 1994,
Bioklimatsko planiranje i projektovanje – urbanisticki parametri, Zavet,
Belgrade, 36.
(7) Srejovic D, 1969, Lepenski Vir, nova praistorijska kultura
u Podunavlju, SKZ, Belgrade, 42-92,157.
(8)
www.yurope.com/people/nena/Vir/arhitekt.html
Powered byIP2Location.com
PLEASE FORWARD YOUR OPINION ON THIS TOPIC
TO nesoni2@open.telekom.rs
Belgrade, 17-feb-06